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Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Sign in. Forgot your password? Get help. Third, the direction of the South Serayu geanticline, which consists of disturbed zones and the west—east trending geanticline Pulunggono and Martodjojo, Figure 1. Figure 2A shows a regional geology map of the area around the Banyumas Basin. The oldest outcrop is the Gabon Volcanic Formation Tomg , which is an Oligocene—Middle Miocene volcanic sequence found in the southwestern part of our study area.

This is followed by the deposition of the Pemali Formation Tmp , which consists of Lower—Middle Miocene turbidite deposits. Next is the Rambatan Formation Tmr , which was deposited in the Middle Miocene and consists of limestone, sandstone, and conglomerates.

Then follows the Kalipucang Formation Tmk , which consists of Middle Miocene limestone; this is followed by the Halang Formation Tmhs , which consists of napal and sandstone and are Middle Miocene—Early Pliocene turbidite deposits.

The Kumbang Formation Tmpk , which consists of sandstone breccias, is volcanic facies deposited in the Middle Pliocene era. Furthermore, the Tapak Formation Tpt is a sandstone intercalation of calcarenite with marl deposited in the Middle Pliocene—Late Pliocene; and finally, the volcanic and basalt of the Quaternary volcanic facies Qa Setiawan, Based on the results of a previous geological study Purwasatriya et al.

However, the presence of tectonic episodes during the Pliocene—Pleistocene period has made secondary porosity in the reservoir rocks, so that volcanic rocks in the Banyumas Basin area remain potential as reservoir rocks. Caprocks, which consists of volcanic rock and has low porosity and permeability, can be found as clay, silt, tuff, and marl in the Gabon and Halang formations. Potential trapping mechanisms in the Banyumas Basin can be structural traps, such as fault structures or anticline, and can also be statigraphic traps, such as reef and onlap.

Based on a biomarker analysis, source rock for the Banyumas Basin is considered to have been generated from sediment deposited in the deltaic fluvial environment in the Late Crestaceous—Eocene period Junursyah et al.

A Regional geological map of the study area modified from Budhitrisna, ; Supriatna et al. In this study, we used passive seismic data acquired from the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of the Republic of Indonesia through the Geological Survey Center.

Data acquisition consisted of 70 recording stations Figure 2B , which had a recording duration of approximately days, starting from March 17 to September 9, , using broadband, three-component borehole Geobit, and SRI23 seismographs. The seismometer sensor used is a borehole type that was installed at an average depth of 12 m at each station. Each seismograph station is equipped with coordinates and elevation measurements using the differential global positioning system DGPS to obtain an accurate position at each recording station.

We determine seismograph stations deployment based on seismic activity and coverage of some geological features that are potential hydrocarbon traps, considered by previous studies on the regional geological and geophysical features, such as gravity, 2-D seismic reflection, and exploration wells. We also used these studies to validate our tomographic results. Several geological features, such as the Cipari anticline trend, the dextral strike-slip of the Pamanukan—Cilacap Fault, and the oil seepage around our seismograph stations, were used for validation in our horizontal and vertical cross section.

Lithologically, this seismic network was also designed to cover rock units ranging from the Gabon Formation Tomg , deposited during the Oligocene—Miocene, to the surficial deposits Qa. The result of travel time tomography inversion is expected to image the condition of the geological structures related to the generation of the pull apart basin, as well as the trapping mechanism for the petroleum system in this study area.

In this study, we only used events that have a difference in arrival times of P and S less than 25 s. A total of earthquake events were used in this study, with 9, P wave phases and 9, S wave phases. The quality control QC of the picking process for all events is performed using a Wadati diagram, as shown by example in Supplementary Figure S2.

We determined the hypocenter locations using a nonlinear method from the NonLinLoc program Lomax, with an inversion approach that relies on the use of PDF normalization and non-normalization to demonstrate our knowledge of parameter values Tarantola and Valette, The algorithm used in the inversion process for determining the location of hypocenter is the oct-tree importance sampling, which uses a recursive division process.

The procedure is repeated until the number of cells is determined, and a solution for the location of the earthquake is found. To determine the position of the hypocenter using the NonLinLoc program Lomax et al. The 1-D velocity model used in this study Figure 3 and Supplementary Table S1 is a combination of Jati-1 well checkshot data for the shallow crust and the results of a travel time tomography study done in south Central Java Koulakov et al.

The Jati-1 well is the deepest exploration well located within our seismic network. The distribution of seismic events is shown in Supplementary Figure S4. Comparison of top 20 km regional 1-D velocity Koulakov et al. Jati-1 well checkshot data give a more detailed velocity contrast on the shallow crust. We used 1. The complete 1-D initial velocity model which we used in this study is shown in Supplementary Table S1. The inversion method used a damped least square, which simultaneously calculates the velocity model and relocates hypocenters.

The ray path parameters in the 3-D velocity structure were obtained from calculations using the pseudo-bending ray tracing method Supplementary Figure S5 Um and Thurber, The initial model for hypocenter parameters was obtained using the NonLinLoc program. The application of checkshot data is meant to specify a more detailed and a local 1-D velocity model in order to delineate geological features at shallow depths.

Supplementary Figure S6 shows histogram of travel time residual in seconds of P and S wave phases decreased after the tomographic inversion and how RMS residual decrease by number of iteration.

The initial 3-D velocity model was created in a grid node with a cell size of 5km x 5km x 2km. Each cell in the grid node contained initial velocity model information, which was then used in the tomography inversion. A damping parameter is needed to stabilize solutions in tomography inversion. The optimum value of the damping parameter is obtained from the comparison of variance data with the variance model on the trade-off curve Supplementary Figure S7.

The optimum damping value varies with the amount and distribution of data, size, and distance from the grid nodes Eberhart-Phillips, By using synthetic velocity, a calculation was performed to obtain synthetic travel time.

Then, inversion was performed using synthetic travel time and a true velocity model Figure 3 and Supplementary Table S1 to obtain recovery of the initial checkerboard model.

The inversion results were used to test the resolution of the tomographic inversion results; we evaluated spatial resolution by determining how well the initial synthetic data could be recovered. Using this method, we evaluated spatial resolution by plotting the matrix resolution; the value of 0 indicates that the model parameter is completely unresolved, while the value of 1 indicates that the model parameter is completely resolved Toomey and Foulger, ; our results in this study show a high DRE value of 0.

The last method employed was the resolution test using DWS. We evaluated spatial resolution by calculating the ray density of cells in the grid node Toomey and Foulger, The larger the DWS, the more rays pass through the cell on the grid nodes, which indicates good resolution in this area. In this case, we only display the regions that are well resolved by CRT, while the regions that are unresolved are characterized in white color.

Based on these three resolution test methods, we conclude that the entire regions of our study area from both horizontal and vertical cross sections can still be well resolved. This resolved area will be further interpreted in relation to the geological structure identified from the cross sections. We expect to reveal the regional geological structures, for example, strike-slip faults such as the Gabon Fault, the Pamanukan—Cilacap Fault, and the Karangbolong Fault in our horizontal section.

Furthermore, in the vertical sections, we expect to reveal the anticline structure that could be a potential structure trap for the Banyumas Basin. Blue and red colors indicate positive and negative anomalies, respectively. Random noise with a 0. Horizontal cross sections will be presented in every 2 km, starting from 0 km mean sea level , while vertical cross sections will be presented on the sections passing through the Jati-1 well and oil seepage on the surface.

Vertical cross sections that passed through oil seepage and the Jati-1 well were further analyzed for interpretation in several geological structures that have potential as hydrocarbon traps. In this study, we also used the results of other geophysical studies such as the gravity anomaly map and 2-D seismic reflection sections Tampubolon et al. The surface geology and the residual gravity anomaly map are used as validation for our horizontal cross sections.

Using the PST method, we tried to investigate the geological structure in the form of anticline, which can be an ideal structural trap for the Banyumas Basin petroleum system; however, detailed explanations related to lithological interpretations will not be presented in this article.

We characterize the presence of the Cipari anticline as a high-velocity anomaly which has a relative NW—SE orientation. We also observed a high-velocity anomaly presence as a volcanic rock in the Gabon Formation in the southwest of the study area based on a comparison of the regional geological map of the study area with a horizontal cross section at 0 km depth Figure 7A.

The existence of the Citanduy Subbasin and the Majenang Subbasin can also be imaged in the horizontal cross section Vp at a depth of 2 km Figure 7B , which is comparable to the residual gravity anomaly. Furthermore, we can still delineate some similar geological features, which are shown in the horizontal Vp section at a depth of 2 km.

It was seen that the velocity structure Vp has good compatibility with some geological features, such as the Cipari anticline pattern, which has a relative NW—SE orientation, and some lithological distribution patterns such as the outcrop of the Gabon Formation, which is characterized by a high-velocity anomaly in the southwest part of the study area.

Previous studies available for the study area were used for comparison with our horizontal cross section results: A A residual gr avity anomaly modified from Hidayat et al. Jati-1 well location is shown by a red star, while oil seepage discoveries are shown by red circles. The low-velocity anomaly, shown by red color, confirmed a low gravity anomaly Figure 6A and interpreted as possible subbasins around the study area. The Miocene geological structure of Figure 6B was overlaid over the Vp horizontal cross sections map.

Based on the study of Miocene-aged geological regional structure configurations in the study area Muchsin et al. Based on our horizontal cross section of the Vp, we can clearly identify Citanduy and Majenang Subbasin.

We can also clearly identify the Gabon Fault and the Karangbolong Fault located in the southwestern and northeastern part of our study area at 0 and 2 km depths Figures 7A,B ; although the velocity contrast indicating the Pamanukan—Cilacap strike-slip fault trend was not clearly imaged. We assume that at depths of 2 km or shallower, some segments of the Pamanukan—Cilacap strike-slip fault are covered by sediment deposited after this structure was formed.

Our assumption is also supported by the results of the Jati-1 well interpretation Table 1 , which shows that rock units in the Late Miocene Rambatan Formation were still deposited to depths of 2 km. At depths of 4 and 6 km, respectively, as shown in Figures 7C,D , the contrast of the Vp anomaly is interpreted as dextral regional strike-slip faults that is the Gabon Fault, the Pamanukan—Cilacap Fault, and the Karangbolong Fault as mentioned by the previous study as the Miocene geological structure of the southern part of Central Java Muchsin et al.

TABLE 1. Facies analysis based on Jati-1 well log data Tampubolon et al. We consider this region as the result of the Pliocene—Pleistocene tectonic compression Pulunggono and Martodjojo, which formed an anticline structure and separated the Majenang and the Citanduy Subbasin.

The change of lithology indicates that the Pamanukan—Cilacap strike-slip fault structure forms an echelon structure, which probably controls the formation of depocenter from the Banyumas Basin. This explains the presence of a low gravity anomaly around the Jati-1 exploration well. We assume this may be one of the possible reasons why, up to a depth of m, the Jati-1 exploration well has not found any rock formations older than the Middle Miocene—aged Pemali Formation Table 1.

Like the Vp structure, the Vs structure shows a similar anomaly distribution pattern. Figure 8E,F show comparable results with the residual gravity anomaly, while Figure 8G,H show comparable results with the complete Bouger anomaly. We interpret that the low-velocity anomaly around the Jati-1 exploration well region in Figure 8G,H shows the depocenter zone of the Banyumas Basin. This is confirmed by the presence of thick sedimentary deposits characterized by a low-velocity anomaly around the Pamanukan—Cilacap strike-slip fault in the vertical sections of the Vp structure.

Some discoveries of oil seepage on the surface were also found around this structure with a similar NW—SE orientation, as seen in Figure 9. We attempted to interpret four sections which are passing through the Jati-1 well and oil seepage on the surface see map on Figure 9. Based on vertical sections of Vs, the Jati-1 well is directly above the anticline structure as shown by Vp and Vs vertical sections.

The Halang Formation has a significant role in the Banyumas Basin petroleum system. Mudstone in the Halang Formation is expected to be potential caprocks in the petroleum system for the Banyumas Basin. Regional structures similar to fold structure patterns anticline—syncline can also be imaged well, based on cross sections of the Vp structure; these show comparable results with the residual gravity anomaly response obtained from the previous study Hidayat et al.

Both of these vertical cross sections pass through oil seepage on the surface. We characterize the geological contact of the Halang and Rambatan formations based on the velocity contrast from these vertical sections. Anticline—syncline structure patterns can also be well imaged on these vertical cross sections, considering the high—low residual gravity anomaly in the respective sections Figure The residual gravity anomaly response Hidayat et al. Blue line indicates geological contact between the Halang Formation and the Rambatan Formation, which is also confirmed by interpretation of Jati-1 well Tampubolon et al.

The top of the Pemali Formation is definitely unknown based on the Jati-1 well because there is no data for depths of 2,— m. The anticline structure is expected to be a good trapping mechanism for the Banyumas Basin. To validate our results, we attempted to make a comparison between 2-D seismic reflection cross-sectional interpretations Tampubolon et al.

Based on the results of these comparisons, we obtained a comparable pattern of subsurface anticline—syncline patterns in both the 2-D seismic reflection cross section and the travel time tomography inversion section.

The top of the anticline was found in the Jati-1 exploration well Figure 13B which is the most common structure for a hydrocarbon trap. The subsurface anticline pattern has the same pattern as the anticline trend that is exposed on the surface, forming an elongated pattern in a NW—SE direction. Directions along which the vertical tomographic sections have been compared to 2-D seismic reflection sections Tampubolon et al.

Velocity contrast shows geological contact of the Halang Formation and the Rambatan Formation. The Cipari anticline trend separates two low anomalies; the Citanduy Subbasin, southwest of the anticline, and the Majenang Subasin, northeast of the anticline. We managed to determine events with P-phases and S-phases as our input for the tomographic inversion. The application of a local 1-D velocity model, using Jati-1 well checkshot data, succeeded in specifying the presence of a more detailed geological structure in a shallow depth.

We also assessed the resolution and reliability of our results using the checkerboard resolution test, the diagonal resolution element, and the derivative weight sum. According to these three methods, the area within our network is still well resolved and reliable for interpretation.

Application of the travel time tomography method by installing a dense seismograph station and a local 1-D velocity model using checkshot data can provide a satisfactory correlation with other geophysical methods and geologic structures related to the delineation of trapping mechanisms for the petroleum system in the Banyumas Basin.

Based on the results of our tomographic inversion, we obtained geometries similar to geological structures in the form of fold structures with the top of the anticline found at the Jati-1 exploration well. The top of the anticline is interpreted as a subsurface image of the Cipari anticline trend confirmed by the regional geology map, 2-D seismic reflection methods, and a residual gravity anomaly.

The velocity contrast of the tomographic inversion results is interpreted as the geological contact between the Halang and Rambatan formations; this interpretation correlates with the results of the Jati-1 well interpretation. Mudstone from the Halang Formation can be a caprock for the Banyumas Basin petroleum system, with the anticline structure as a trap mechanism.

Our tomographic inversion results are highly comparable with those of previous studies, such as gravity, 2-D seismic reflection, and the geological structure. Based on the comparison of the Vp horizontal cross section with the regional geological map in the study area, the high-velocity anomaly shows a comparable pattern with the distribution of volcanic rocks from the Gabon Formation in the southwest part of the study area.

Meanwhile, based on the comparison between the horizontal cross section and the residual gravity anomaly, the high-velocity anomaly with a NW—SE orientation is interpreted as a subsurface image of the Cipari anticline trend that separates the Citanduy Subbasin and the Majenang Subbasin at a depth of 2 km.